Equine Nutrition 101: A Comprehensive Guide to Feeding Your Horse Right
By Abigail Greenwalt, Certified Equine Nutritionist and Positive Reinforcement Trainer
As horse owners, we know that proper nutrition is one of the most critical elements of horse care. Yet, it often feels overwhelming—there are so many options, conflicting advice, and complex nutritional science. Trust me, I’ve been there! Despite studying equine nutrition during my animal science degree, I didn’t fully enjoy it—until I completed my recent certification in Equine Nutrition, which reignited my interest in the topic.
In this blog post, I’ll break down the essentials of equine nutrition in a way that’s simple, practical, and, most importantly, beneficial for your horse’s health and happiness. Ready to dive in? Let’s go!
Understanding the Horse’s Digestive System
The first step to feeding your horse right is understanding how their unique digestive system works. Unlike cows or goats (who are ruminants with multi-chambered stomachs), horses are hindgut fermenters. Fun fact: rabbits share this same digestive system!
The Hindgut Fermentation Process
Location: The majority of a horse’s digestion happens in the cecum—a large fermentation vat located after the stomach.
Purpose: This is where complex, fibrous forages are broken down by beneficial bacteria. These microbes ferment the fiber and produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which serve as a major energy source.
Gut Microbiome: A healthy microbiome is crucial. It not only helps digest fibrous forage but also synthesizes certain vitamins essential for your horse’s well-being.
Unique Digestive Traits
No Gallbladder: Horses lack a gallbladder, limiting their ability to digest large amounts of fat. Their liver compensates for this, but they still process fats differently than many other animals.
Continuous Grazers: Horses are designed to graze for many hours daily. Their stomachs continuously secrete acid, which means prolonged periods without forage can lead to ulcers and other digestive issues.
Macronutrients: The Building Blocks of Equine Nutrition
A well-balanced equine diet hinges on three primary macronutrients: proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
1. Proteins: The Body’s Building Blocks
Proteins are essential for muscle development, immune function, and more. When digested, proteins break down into amino acids, which are categorized as:
Essential Amino Acids (must be provided in the diet): Lysine, Methionine, and Threonine.
Non-Essential Amino Acids (synthesized by the body): Alanine and Glutamine.
How Much Protein Does Your Horse Need?
Adult horses require approximately 1.08 to 1.44 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight.
Growing horses, pregnant mares, and elderly horses may need more.
2. Fats: A Source of Cool Energy
Fats provide energy without causing the “hot” behavior often associated with high-sugar diets. They also support a healthy coat and skin.
Ideal Omega Ratio: Aim for a 4:1 ratio of Omega-3 to Omega-6 to minimize inflammation.
Safe Limits: Keep total fat content under 15-20% of the diet.
Good sources include ground flaxseed and chia seeds.
3. Carbohydrates: The Primary Energy Source
Carbs are the backbone of your horse’s energy intake, but not all carbs are created equal.
Hydrolyzable Carbohydrates (WSC/ESC):
These simple sugars are digested in the small intestine, leading to rapid absorption and blood sugar spikes. Common sources: molasses, grains, and certain hays.Fermentable Carbohydrates (NSC):
These escape small intestine digestion and are fermented in the hindgut, producing VFAs for slow-release energy. While beneficial, excessive NSC can lead to hindgut acidosis, disrupting gut bacteria and potentially causing colic or laminitis.
Managing NSCs:
Especially important for metabolically sensitive horses (e.g., those with insulin resistance or Cushing’s).
Opt for low-NSC forages and limit high-starch grains.
Inflammatory Ingredients: What to Avoid
Inflammation is at the root of many equine health issues. One major contributor? Imbalanced Omega fatty acids.
Omega-6 to Omega-3 Imbalance:
Wild horse diets typically had a 1:1 to 4:1 ratio. Modern diets often tip this scale heavily toward Omega-6s, sometimes reaching 20:1, which promotes chronic inflammation.
Ingredients High in Omega-6 (to Avoid):
Soy: 6:1 Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio
Corn: A staggering 55:1
Barley, Rye, Wheat: Ranging from 8:1 to 10:1
Molasses & Sugar: Highly inflammatory
Chronic inflammation can lead to:
Ulcers
Colic
Insulin resistance
Cushing’s
Laminitis
Poor coat and hoof quality
Behavioral issues
Building a Balanced Diet: What SHOULD You Feed?
1. Forage, Forage, Forage!
Your horse should consume 2% of their body weight in forage daily (for a 1,000 lb horse, that’s 20 lbs of hay).
Opt for low-NSC hays like Bermuda or Teff for metabolic horses.
2. Salt & Minerals
Salt: Feed 2 tablespoons of non-iodized salt daily. Salt blocks alone don’t cut it!
Minerals: Consider a forage balancer or get a Metals and Minerals Mane Test for a personalized approach.
3. Supplements
If you can’t do a full analysis, start with a balanced supplement like Vermont Blend.
4. Training Treats
Use soaked forage pellets (like Timothy or Teff) during positive reinforcement sessions.
For high-value treats, opt for alfalfa pellets or alfalfa-based treats.
Testing, Not Guessing: The Key to Success
One of the best things you can do for your horse is to test rather than guess.
Hay Testing: Know what’s in your forage to better balance the rest of the diet.
Metals & Minerals Mane Testing: Understand how your horse is metabolizing nutrients and adjust accordingly.
Final Thoughts: Prioritize Your Horse’s Health
Proper equine nutrition isn’t just about preventing issues—it’s about helping your horse thrive. By understanding their digestive system, balancing macronutrients, and avoiding inflammatory ingredients, you set your horse up for long-term health and happiness.
If you’d like a personalized nutrition plan for your horse, I offer one-on-one consultations, including mane testing and a custom diet plan. Together, we can help your horse feel their absolute best!
Thanks for reading and, as always—happy training and happy feeding! 🐎💚
Want to know more?
I have a quick and dirty Equine Nutrition Reference Sheet that includes basics for equine nutrition, a comprehensive list of ingredients to avoid, and what I recommend for training, complete with links! Click here to get the Equine Nutrition Reference Sheet!
Or
Schedule a nutrition consult with me, that includes a Minerals and Metals Mane Test. We’ll make a personalized plan for your individual horse!
Schedule here!
Mastering Hoof Handling with Positive Reinforcement: A Step-by-Step Guide
Hoof handling is one of the most common challenges horse owners face. Whether you're working with a young horse, a horse with past aversions, or simply refining your current hoof care routine, using positive reinforcement can make all the difference. In this blog post, I’ll take you through everything you need to know about hoof handling, from the basics to more advanced strategies, and help you build a more cooperative, relaxed relationship with your horse during this critical part of care.
Step 1: Define the Final Behavior
When it comes to hoof handling, the goal is to have a horse that remains still and calmly lifts the correct hoof on their own. This behavior should involve the horse allowing you to hold the hoof, relax it into your hand, and maintain that position for a reasonable duration. Over time, the horse should become comfortable with being handled by others, including the farrier.
Step 2: Assess the Starting Point
The first thing you’ll need to do is assess where your horse is starting. Do they have fear, aversion, or pain associated with hoof handling? Some horses may be completely unfamiliar with the process, and that's where you’ll need to start, while others may have bad experiences to overcome. Take time to evaluate what they already know and make a training plan accordingly.
Step 3: Shape the Behavior
The key to success is shaping the behavior. Horses don’t know right away what it means to lift their hooves, so we need to reinforce every step toward that final goal. Start by reinforcing small weight shifts, then gradually work toward lifting the hoof. Remember, we’re looking for relaxation—not hooves flying up, especially the back hooves. Keep the training slow and steady.
For a horse who is completely new to hoof handling (or has mild hesitation), we’ll break the behavior down into small, achievable steps:
1️⃣ Reinforce weight shifting to prepare for lifting
2️⃣ Mark and reward for hoof unweighting (before they even lift)
3️⃣ Allow them to relax their hoof into your hand before adding duration
4️⃣ Gradually introduce hoof tools (like the pick, rasp, and nippers)
5️⃣ Proof for the farrier with different people handling their feet
The key to success is clicking for relaxation at every step.
Step 4: Introducing Tools and Proofing
Once your horse is comfortable with you holding their hooves, you can begin introducing tools such as hoof picks and rasping tools. The goal here is to get the horse comfortable with unexpected sensations. Use a variety of tools, from the brush side of the hoof pick to rubber curry combs, to prepare them for anything the farrier might use.
Proofing the behavior is essential. You need to prepare your horse for different scenarios—whether it’s handling in a different location, under slight stress, or even having other people handle their hooves. This is where the 4Ds come in: Duration, Discrimination, Distance, and Distraction. Make sure your horse is comfortable with all of these before moving forward.
🏆 Ways to Proof for Real-World Success:
✔️ Have different people practice lifting and holding hooves
✔️ Introduce rasps, nippers, and hoof stands gradually
✔️ Change locations (stall, pasture, barn aisle, concrete pad)
✔️ Add light distractions (like wind, other horses, or mild background noise)
✨ Pro Tip: Ask your farrier for an old rasp and nippers so you can practice beforehand!
Step 5: Training for the Farrier
Before your farrier arrives, practice your training sessions so that your horse is comfortable and relaxed with the entire process. It’s also helpful to video these sessions to assess your training and ensure you're meeting your goals. Make sure your farrier understands what you’ve worked on and, if possible, have them come out for a “practice run” to ensure everyone is on the same page. Pay the farrier the same you would for a trim, but emphasis you don’t need a full trim done.
Step 6: Overcoming Challenges
If you’re in a situation where your horse requires hoof care but isn’t quite ready for full training, consider using a classical conditioning approach. You can use the “open and close bar” method, which simply means feeding your horse when their hoof is in the air, and withholding food when it's on the ground. This method can be very helpful if you're in a rush but want to keep things as calm and cooperative as possible.
What If My Horse Needs a Trim Before We’re Ready?
If your horse’s hooves need urgent care, but they aren’t trained yet, consider:
✅ Optimizing the setup (a familiar, quiet location, proper footing)
✅ Using low-dose sedation (in consultation with your vet)
✅ Implementing an open bar/closed bar system (feeding while hooves are held to create positive associations)
Most importantly—DON’T RUSH THE TRAINING. It's okay to prioritize immediate hoof health first, then return to R+ training for long-term success.
Step 7: Keep Track of Progress
Hoof handling training takes time, so be patient with your horse—and yourself. Practice is key, and consistency will lead to better results. Use journals or tracking methods to monitor progress, and make adjustments as needed. Over time, you'll be able to handle your horse’s hooves confidently, knowing you’ve built a strong, cooperative foundation.
My R+ Horse Training Planner: https://a.co/d/431bVdP
Conclusion:
Proper hoof handling is an essential skill for all horse owners. With the right approach, positive reinforcement can turn hoof care from a stressful experience into a positive one for both you and your horse. As I transition my business to focus more on my membership, I’ll be offering detailed courses on hoof handling, so stay tuned for more resources!
Interested in learning more?
Check out my membership, where I’ll be adding a full hoof handling course this year, plus much more to help you train your horse with kindness and science-backed methods!
Join the Membership - https://www.greenwaltequine.com/online-membership
Podcast Episode on R+ Hoof Handling: https://open.spotify.com/episode/2LY0IR8iYDayTQdeCrxae0?si=oqcrBDMbQNWmDAfp34sjLQ
Arousal and the Affective State
This discussion builds on recent conversations from my social media and blog, particularly about geldings and stallions "dropping" during training. While that topic sparked spirited debate, the larger issue here is understanding arousal levels and emotional states in training. Let’s break it down and explore what this means for both the horse and the trainer.
What Is Arousal?
Arousal refers to the physiological and psychological state of alertness or activation in an organism. It exists on a spectrum:
Low arousal: Drowsiness or lethargy
Moderate arousal: Focused and engaged
High arousal: Excitement, stress, or agitation
Physiological markers of arousal include changes in heart rate, cortisol levels, respiration, and pupil dilation. These markers influence a horse’s ability to focus, respond to stimuli, and learn effectively.
Observable Behaviors as Indicators of Arousal
Different species exhibit arousal levels through observable behaviors. For example:
Dogs: Barking—which may signify excitement (throw the toy!) or stress (an intruder alert!).
Humans: Flushed cheeks—this can happen when we’re embarrassed, surprised, or excited.
Horses: Pawing—this might indicate excitement (grain is coming!), stress (standing tied), or playfulness (younger horses interacting).
For geldings and stallions, "dropping" can sometimes indicate arousal. This behavior’s emotional motivation depends on the context, ranging from engagement to relaxation or frustration.
What Is Valence?
Valence refers to the emotional value of an experience:
Positive valence: Pleasant and rewarding emotions (e.g., contentment, curiosity, joy).
Negative valence: Unpleasant and aversive emotions (e.g., fear, frustration, sadness).
Valence and arousal work together to shape emotional experiences and behaviors. For example:
High arousal + positive valence = Excitement, playfulness
High arousal + negative valence = Fear, aggression
Low arousal + positive valence = Calmness, relaxation
Low arousal + negative valence = Sadness, disengagement
Why Do Arousal and Valence Matter in Training?
A horse’s affective state (a combination of arousal and valence) directly influences its learning, decision-making, and behavior.
Positive states: Promote engagement, focus, and responsiveness to reinforcement.
Negative states: Can lead to avoidance, defensive responses, or impaired learning.
The Yerkes-Dodson Law
The Yerkes-Dodson Law illustrates the relationship between arousal and performance as an inverted U-shaped curve. Optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal levels, while:
Too little arousal: Leads to disengagement or lethargy.
Too much arousal: Results in stress, fear, or aggression.
Research Insights
Key studies highlight the role of arousal and affective states in animal training:
Starling et al. (2013): Conceptualizing Arousal in Operant Conditioning
Optimal training occurs at moderate arousal and positive affective states.
Positive reinforcement is most effective for animals in positive affective states.
Excessive arousal reduces learning effectiveness across all methods.
McLean and McGreevy (2010): Arousal in Horse Training
Harsh punishment leads to heightened arousal and defensive behaviors (e.g., bolting, freezing).
Reward-based training promotes learning by maintaining moderate arousal and positive states.
Haverbeke et al. (2008): Arousal in Military Dogs
Positive reinforcement improved performance and reduced stress-related behaviors.
Punishment-induced high arousal caused inconsistent behaviors and aggression.
Mendl et al. (2010): Arousal and Problem-Solving in Primates
Moderate arousal enhances cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.
Application to Horse Training
Promote Positive Affective States
Use positive reinforcement to create pleasant associations with training.
Avoid aversive methods that increase negative affective states and impair learning.
Balance Arousal Levels
For low arousal: Use novel stimuli, high-value reinforcers, or increased energy in your movements to engage your horse.
For high arousal: Reduce distractions, use calming techniques (e.g., classical counter-conditioning, predictable routines), and reinforce calming signals like deep breaths or lowered head.
Task Complexity
For novel or complex tasks: Aim for low to moderate arousal to improve focus and learning.
For simple or practiced tasks: Slightly higher arousal can enhance performance.
Individual Differences
Horses have unique baselines for arousal. Sensitive horses may need gradual exposure to new stimuli, while calmer horses may require more stimulation to engage effectively.
Finding the Sweet Spot
Arousal and affective states are dynamic and context-dependent. The goal is to balance these factors for the horse in front of you, optimizing their learning experience while maintaining their emotional well-being. Remember, behavior is the study of one: no single rule applies universally, and training should always consider the individual horse and its context.
Further Learning
Drinking from the toilet: “Over the Top - High Arousal in Dogs” https://open.spotify.com/episode/6vL3FWwjwXx6DKx5vRT1eZ?si=zyoAx_XmSxu1wIyEa5FMNA
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459–482.
Summary: This seminal study investigated how varying levels of electric shock (as a stimulus) affected the learning speed of Japanese dancing mice in a discrimination task. The researchers discovered that mice exposed to moderate levels of shock learned the task more quickly than those exposed to very low or very high levels of shock. This observation led to the formulation of the Yerkes–Dodson Law, which posits an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance: optimal performance is achieved at moderate levels of arousal, while too little or too much arousal can hinder performance.
Starling, M. J., Branson, N., Cody, D., & McGreevy, P. D. (2013). Conceptualising the Impact of Arousal and Affective State on Training Outcomes of Operant Conditioning. Animals, 3(2), 300–317.
Summary: This paper explores how an animal's arousal and affective (emotional) states influence the effectiveness of different operant conditioning techniques. The authors introduce "response landscapes," three-dimensional models that depict the probability of desired behaviors occurring under various combinations of arousal and affective states. The study emphasizes that training efficacy is maximized when animals are in a positive affective state with moderate arousal levels. It also highlights the necessity of tailoring training approaches to individual animals, considering their unique emotional and arousal conditions.
Direct link: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3020300
Bray, E. E., MacLean, E. L., & Hare, B. A. (2015). Increasing Arousal Enhances Inhibitory Control in Calm but Not Excitable Dogs. Animal Cognition, 18(6), 1317–1329.
Summary: This study examines how arousal levels affect inhibitory control in dogs with different temperaments. The researchers found that increasing arousal improved inhibitory control in dogs characterized as calm but did not have the same effect on dogs identified as excitable. These findings suggest that the relationship between arousal and performance is influenced by individual temperament, aligning with the Yerkes–Dodson Law's principle that optimal arousal levels for performance vary among individuals.
Direct link: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0901-1
Cohen, R. A. (2011). Yerkes–Dodson Law. In J. S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 2737–2738). Springer.
Summary: This encyclopedia entry provides an overview of the Yerkes–Dodson Law, discussing its historical background, empirical support, and applications in various fields, including psychology and neuroscience. It elaborates on how the law explains the relationship between arousal levels and performance, emphasizing that while moderate arousal can enhance performance, too much or too little arousal can be detrimental.
Direct link: https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1348
Haverbeke, A., Laporte, B., Depiereux, E., Giffroy, J. M., & Diederich, C. (2008). Training Methods of Military Dog Handlers and Their Effects on the Team’s Performance. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 113(1–3), 110–122.
Summary: This study investigates the impact of different training methods used by military dog handlers on the performance and welfare of the dogs. The findings indicate that positive reinforcement techniques are associated with better performance outcomes and lower stress levels in dogs, whereas aversive methods can lead to increased stress and reduced effectiveness. The study underscores the importance of considering the affective state of animals in training programs to optimize performance and well-being.
Direct link: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.11.009
Mendl, M., Burman, O. H. P., & Paul, E. S. (2010). An Integrative and Functional Framework for the Study of Animal Emotion and Mood. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1696), 2895–2904.
Summary: This paper presents a framework for understanding animal emotions and moods, integrating findings from behavioral, cognitive, and neurophysiological studies. It discusses how affective states influence decision-making processes in animals and proposes methods for assessing these states. The framework aids in comprehending how emotions and moods can affect learning and behavior, which is crucial for developing effective and humane training practices.
Direct link: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.0303
Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press.
Summary: In this comprehensive work, Jaak Panksepp explores the neural mechanisms underlying emotions in humans and animals. He identifies primary emotional systems in the brain and discusses their evolutionary significance. Understanding these systems provides insight into how affective states are generated and regulated, which is essential for applying concepts like the Yerkes–Dodson Law in animal training to ensure that training methods align with the animals' emotional capacities and promote positive welfare outcomes.
Direct link to the book: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/affective-neuroscience-9780195096736
Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2007). The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) in the Study of Emotion and Attention. Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment, 29, 70–73.
Summary: This chapter discusses the development and application of the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), a standardized set of images used to study emotion and attention. The IAPS has been instrumental in research exploring how emotional stimuli affect physiological responses and behavior, contributing to the broader understanding of affective states and their impact on cognitive processes. While not directly related to animal training, the methodologies discussed have parallels in assessing and interpreting affective responses in animals.
Eysenck, M. W. (1982). Attention and Arousal: Cognition and Performance. Springer-Verlag.
This book explores the intricate relationship between arousal, attention, and cognition, providing an in-depth analysis of how variations in arousal levels influence performance on cognitive tasks and learning processes. Eysenck integrates psychological and neuroscientific perspectives to explain the mechanisms underlying arousal and its effects on behavior.
More research on geldings dropping
First, behavior should not be reduced to a single function, context, horse, observation, biochemical response, or research study. It is critically important to consider all observable behaviors, context clues, and situational factors when attempting to interpret behavior. Behavior is the study of one, and most—if not all—behavior should be evaluated on an individual and situational basis, and CAN have multiple functions and motivations.
Once again, I am presenting this data solely because it is rarely seen circulating or discussed in the broader debate on dropping. There certainly needs to be more research conducted on this topic. However, when we examine the current research available, it does seem to suggest that dropping is NOT USUALLY a sign of stress.
I am not arguing that dropping can never be a sign of stress or pain. I am simply presenting the current research we have and asking you to keep an open mind, READ the studies, seek out additional research on your own, and observe your horses' behavior with a neutral perspective. Horse owners are not always the most reliable at interpreting their horses' behavior and emotional states. And yes, there is even a study on that. Do we have some bias, preconceived notions, and superstitious behaviors ourselves?
One of the best studies was behind a pay wall. So, I bought the article, and have attached it as a Google Drive link, because I think this research should be available to the public. If you want the PDF version, I am happy to email it to you!
Key Findings from the Research:
1. Dropping in Male Horses During Training (Merkies et al., 2023)
Observation Study: Video analysis of 24 horses during training sessions.
Key Result: Dropping occurred in 69% of the sessions, with no correlation to stress behaviors such as head tossing, tail swishing, or lip licking.
Main Drivers:
Increased food rewards were linked to higher instances of dropping.
Dropping was more frequent in prime-aged horses (11-15 years).
No significant correlation with clicker use or physical touch.
Conclusion: Dropping appears related to affective states and food anticipation rather than stress responses. No evidence linked dropping to discomfort or emotional stress.
2. Spontaneous Erection and Masturbation in Equids (McDonnell et al., 1991)
Study Focus: Natural occurrences of SEAM in horses without human interaction.
Key Result: SEAM was observed frequently in relaxed, non-stressful environments such as turnout and resting periods.
Conclusion: SEAM is a normal, spontaneous behavior unrelated to stress or anxiety. It appears to be a standard physiological response in stallions and geldings under calm conditions.
3. Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Horses (Hall et al., 2013)
Study Focus: Identification of reliable stress indicators in horses.
Key Stress Indicators Identified:
Elevated head carriage.
Tail swishing.
Lip licking (when paired with other stress behaviors).
Conclusion: None of these stress behaviors were associated with dropping during training sessions in other studies, suggesting dropping is not a stress indicator.
4. The Role of Dopamine and Positive Reinforcement
Physiological Link: Dropping has been associated with the dopamine system, a neurotransmitter linked to reward and motivation rather than stress (Giuliano & Allard, 2001)
Food Rewards: Positive reinforcement training with food often triggers dopamine release, which can result in dropping without any link to stress.
5. Age and Time of Day Factors
Age: Horses between 11-15 years showed higher rates of dropping, possibly linked to peak physiological maturity rather than emotional states.
Time of Day: Dropping was less common during afternoon training sessions, aligning with circadian hormonal fluctuations (Kirkpatrick et al., 1976).
Conclusions Across Studies:
No Evidence of Stress Correlation: Dropping and SEAM were not linked with stress behaviors in any of the reviewed studies.
Physiological Basis: The behavior appears primarily linked to dopamine activity and food rewards, consistent with relaxed states.
Natural Occurrence: SEAM and dropping are common, spontaneous behaviors observed in both training and natural contexts without stress triggers.
This evidence reinforces the importance of understanding equine body language within the broader context of behavior science rather than assuming stress-based interpretations for natural physiological responses.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/.../abs/pii/S0168159123000473
Google Drive Link: https://drive.google.com/.../11_4UCD4fjUkaeY5Xs1.../view...
https://www.sciencedirect.com/.../abs/pii/S0378432005001855
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/12/4/421#B23-animals-12-00421
https://www.sciencedirect.com/.../pii/S0737080606812426
https://www.sciencedirect.com/.../pii/S0749073917304662
https://www.sciencedirect.com/.../abs/pii/0014299986902773
https://academic.oup.com/.../article.../64/1/27/2653453
Geldings “dropping”
I've seen too many posts with incorrect information and have had enough clients ask about this topic that it's time for me to clear things up.
There are a lot of discussions circulating about geldings (or stallions) dropping during positive reinforcement (R+) training sessions. And, as always, this has sparked the debate: Is it stress or happiness?
Many professionals have been weighing in on this lately, with most leaning toward the explanation of stress. However, there's a crucial piece of information I rarely see discussed. Thank you, reproductive physiology classes, for locking this into my brain years ago! Funny how certain facts just stick with you.
First, let me be clear: You cannot take a snapshot of a behavior and definitively declare the motivation or emotion behind it. Behavior is far more nuanced than that. Every behavior must be interpreted within its full context, considering other observable behaviors.
For example, consider pawing. It could indicate:
Distance-creating or defensive behavior
Anxiety
Anticipation due to excitement
A trained behavior offered calmly
A trained behavior offered excitedly
A foraging behavior
A precursor to rolling
Pain
The function, motivation, and emotion behind pawing can vary widely, which is why context and accompanying behaviors are essential for interpretation. The same applies to dropping. Now, let's circle back and take a look at what is going on inside the body, when dropping is observed.
Biochemical Lesson: The Physiology Behind Dropping
While emotions can't be reduced to pure biochemistry, biochemistry can offer significant insights. Let's break down the biological processes involved.
Biochemical Process of Penile Erection:
Sexual Arousal Triggers Neural Activation:
The parasympathetic nervous system releases nitric oxide (NO) from non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic (NANC) nerve terminals and endothelial cells.
Nitric Oxide (NO) Production:
NO is synthesized from L-arginine by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes (eNOS and nNOS).
Calcium influx activates these enzymes, leading to NO release.
Guanylate Cyclase Activation and cGMP Production:
NO activates soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), converting guanosine triphosphate (GTP) into cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP).
cGMP reduces intracellular calcium, inhibiting calcium channels and promoting calcium storage.
Smooth Muscle Relaxation:
Reduced calcium allows smooth muscle relaxation in the corpora cavernosa, causing penile arteries to dilate and fill with blood.
Increased intracavernosal pressure compresses venous outflow, maintaining the erection.
Biochemical Process of Detumescence (Penile Retraction):
Sympathetic Nervous System Activation:
Norepinephrine (NE) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) activate G-protein coupled receptors in smooth muscle cells.
This triggers the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway, increasing intracellular calcium.
Calcium-Dependent Contraction:
Increased calcium activates myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK), which phosphorylates myosin, causing smooth muscle contraction and reducing blood flow.
PDE5 and cGMP Breakdown:
The enzyme phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) breaks down cGMP, reversing smooth muscle relaxation.
Stress (Cortisol) vs. Oxytocin (Relaxation)
Cortisol (Stress Response):
Released during stress, cortisol inhibits NO release and reduces cGMP production.
This results in increased smooth muscle contraction and penile retraction.
Oxytocin (Relaxation and Bonding Hormone):
Released during positive emotional states, oxytocin stimulates NO production and vasodilation.
This promotes smooth muscle relaxation and penile engorgement.
In Simple Terms:
Simply put, norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) is part of the sympathetic nervous system (the fight-or-flight response). It triggers the body's process that causes the penis to retract. There is also evidence that cortisol, a stress hormone, can reduce or even block nitric oxide activity, which is essential for blood vessel relaxation (vasodilation). Additionally, when the sympathetic nervous system is active, the retractor penis muscle contracts, pulling the penis back into the sheath.
On the other hand, oxytocin and other neurotransmitters released by the parasympathetic nervous system (the rest-and-digest or feed-and-breed response) help the body relax. During positive reinforcement training, these chemicals promote smooth muscle relaxation, sometimes leading to penile engorgement.
In summary, when a horse "drops" during a positive reinforcement session, the biochemistry behind the behavior would indicate relaxation, not stress. According to the biochemistry, this physiological response cannot happen when the horse is in a stressed or fearful state.
What This Means for R+ Training
When a gelding drops during a positive reinforcement session, the biochemical processes occurring in the body suggests the horse is in the parasympathetic nervous system, not the sympathetic nervous system. The physiological response you’re seeing (smooth muscle relaxation and penile engorgement) cannot occur when the sympathetic nervous system (stress response) is active.
HOWEVER - I want to reiterate, that we cannot interpret a behavior looking at biochemistry alone. There are MANY things at play for each and every behavior.
Both animals and humans can become overly excited or aroused, even when the excitement is positive. This state of being over threshold (even in a positive way) can lead to distraction and loss of focus, or even frustration, anxiety, and conflict behaviors, even if the emotions are positive. This is not a place we want to hang out in either! That is also something we want to address and change.
*Important Considerations*
Superstitious Behaviors: Dropping can become conditioned during training, just like other behaviors such as ears forward or back. If a horse is consistently reinforced while dropping, the behavior might become linked with the training itself. (The old “click-a-dick” phenomenon.)
Individual Differences: Not all horses respond to pressure or learning challenges the same way. Some horses thrive when working through minor challenges, while others may struggle or shut down. Training should always be adapted to the individual horse in front of you.
Conclusion
Let’s not rush to judge a behavior based on a single observation. Behaviors have many possible functions, motivations, and emotional underpinnings. It’s crucial to consider the context and accompanying behaviors before making assumptions. Understanding the biochemistry behind behavior can also offer valuable insights into what hormones and neurotransmitters are active at the time.
When in doubt, remember Dr. Susan Friedman’s words: “Behavior is the study of ONE.” Trust your observations, stay curious, and keep learning.
I encourage you to explore this topic further—I've linked some excellent articles and studies below for more in-depth information.
Happy Training!
**** EDIT ****
To clarify and reiterate - dropping can go one way or the other. It depends on the horse and the situation. But if we JUST look at the biochemistry - THAT would suggest that it can not occur under stress. However, like I said, behavior cannot be interpreted solely on the biochemistry.
Pain and physical issues are a whole other thing.
Dropping (or SEAM) can be observed in MANY contexts and have MANY reasons
More info:
Horse Sport. (2023, October 6). Observing pain in elite event horses at Badminton and Burghley. Horse Sport. Retrieved from https://horsesport.com/magazine/behaviour/observing-pain-elite-event-horses-badminton-burghley/
Pedrosa, K., & Clinton, R. (2012). Mechanisms in Erectile Function and Dysfunction: An Overview. InTech. doi: 10.5772/39088 https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/30215
Salvio, G., Martino, M., Giancola, G., Arnaldi, G., & Balercia, G. (2021). Hypothalamic–Pituitary Diseases and Erectile Dysfunction. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(12), 2551. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10122551 https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/12/2551
Stress in horses: what impact on health and performance? Mar 15, 2022 | Physiology, Welfare https://vet.arioneo.com/en/blog/stress-in-horses-what-impact-on-health-and-performance
Figure 3. Pedrosa, K., & Clinton, R. (2012). Mechanisms in Erectile Function and Dysfunction: An Overview. InTech. doi: 10.5772/39088 https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/30215
Figure 4. Pedrosa, K., & Clinton, R. (2012). Mechanisms in Erectile Function and Dysfunction: An Overview. InTech. doi: 10.5772/39088 https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/30215
How to Start Training Your Horse with Positive Reinforcement
It all begins with an idea.
Hi, I’m Abigail, and I help everyday horse owners build a collaborative and joyful relationship with their horses using the science of positive reinforcement training (R+). Today, I’m sharing how to get started with R+ training and avoid common pitfalls, especially for beginners.
My Journey into Positive Reinforcement Training
My introduction to R+ training began long before I worked professionally with horses. As a kid, I naturally used food rewards to train my outdoor cats to perform tricks, even though I didn’t fully understand the science behind it. Later, during my animal science degree and professional work in zoos, positive reinforcement was standard practice. It was the only way to train safely and ethically with species like tigers and jaguars.
When I began applying R+ to my own horses, I noticed how much more effective and compassionate it was compared to traditional methods. My zoo mentors and formal training in behavior science gave me a solid foundation, but transitioning to horses came with its own learning curve.
Why Positive Reinforcement Training?
Positive reinforcement focuses on rewarding desired behaviors, creating a safe and empowering learning environment for the horse. Instead of using pressure or fear, R+ relies on the horse voluntarily offering behaviors for rewards, making training clearer and more ethical.
Steps to Get Started with Positive Reinforcement:
Learn the Basics of Operant Conditioning: Understanding the four quadrants of learning theory and how behavior works will set you up for success.
Join a Membership or Learning Community: Courses and memberships like the Shawna Karrasch Membership or Animal Training Academy (or mine!) offer structured guidance and support.
Flood Your Social Media with R+ Content: Surround yourself with positive reinforcement resources for inspiration and continued learning.
Focus on Foundation Behaviors: Start with calm, default behaviors and build from there. I offer a free list of foundational behaviors on my website to help you get started.
Use Treats Mindfully: Prioritize healthy forage-based reinforcers instead of sugary treats.
Final Thoughts
R+ training is a journey, not a destination. Stay curious, patient, and compassionate with yourself and your horse. If you’re looking for a step-by-step guide, sign up for my email list for free resources and join my membership for personalized support.
Happy training!
Clean Loops
It all begins with an idea.
What Are Clean Loops?
Clean loops refer to smooth, error-free repetitions during training where the learner consistently performs the desired behavior without unwanted behaviors creeping in. This concept, developed by Alexandra Kurland and Dr. Jesus Rosales-Ruiz, helps trainers ensure clarity and success in their sessions.
Why Do Clean Loops Matter?
Clean loops are essential because they:
Minimize Frustration: Fewer errors lead to a calmer, more confident horse.
Prevent Unwanted Behaviors: Avoid accidental reinforcement of behaviors like pawing or nudging.
Build Stronger Behaviors: Behaviors learned without errors are more durable and reliable.
Where Do Errors Come From?
Errors in training typically stem from three areas:
Learning History: Previous experiences influencing behavior.
Current Criteria: Asking for too much, too soon.
Environment: Distractions or stressors affecting focus.
Creating Clean Loops in Your Training
Start Small: Break behaviors down into tiny, achievable steps.
Feed Strategically: Deliver food in a way that sets your horse up for the next repetition.
Use Clear Cues: Ensure cues are consistent and easy to understand.
Monitor Emotional Responses: Aim for calm, engaged participation.
Example of a Clean Loop
Target Training:
Horse touches the target → Click → Treat
Horse returns to neutral → Cue target again
Repetition with no extra behaviors
Final Thoughts
Clean loops create clarity and confidence in both you and your horse. By reducing errors and reinforcing correctly, you'll build stronger behaviors and a positive training experience. If you’re looking for deeper guidance on clean loops and positive reinforcement, check out my membership for personalized support and live lessons.
Happy Training!
Alexandra Kurland (R+ Horse Trainer who came up with and coined “Clean Loops”
https://www.theclickercenter.com/
Clicker Expo Clean Loops Team Taught
https://video.clickertraining.com/programs/training-in-loops-teamtaught
Training Multiple Horses with R+
It all begins with an idea.
The Ideal Scenario
The best way to train multiple horses is to isolate the horse you're working with. This setup:
Minimizes Distractions: Allows the horse to focus better.
Prevents Resource Guarding: Reduces stress around food and attention.
Improves Clarity: Prevents emotional responses from other herd members affecting the learner.
However, I completely understand that isolation isn't always possible, especially in boarding situations or large pastures. So, let’s discuss some practical solutions when you can't create the ideal setup.
Strategies for Training Multiple Horses
Train During Feeding Time: While other horses are eating, you can focus on training one horse with fewer interruptions.
Use Enrichment for the Herd: Scatter hay or safe browse to keep other horses occupied during your session.
Train Slightly Away from the Herd: Take your horse a short distance from the group where they can still see the others but aren't directly interacting.
No Hand Feeding in the Pasture: Avoid random treat-giving to multiple horses without clear training intent, as it can encourage crowding and resource guarding.
Using a Halter as a Training Signal
A simple way to create clarity when working with multiple horses is using the halter as a training cue. Only the horse wearing the halter receives food and attention during the session, while others learn to wait their turn. Be consistent and clear, ensuring you protect the horse you're working with from being pushed around by other horses.
Teaching Horses to Take Turns
With some effort, you can train multiple horses together and teach them to take turns. Steps include:
Start with Protected Contact: Use barriers or separate areas.
Stationing: Have each horse stand at a designated spot.
Feed in Patterns: Rotate through the horses in a consistent order.
Final Thoughts
Working with multiple horses takes planning, but it’s entirely possible with positive reinforcement. Whether you train individually or teach turn-taking, clarity, and consistency are key. For more guidance, check out my membership where we dive deeper into these techniques and offer personalized support.
Happy Training!
3 Most Common Mistakes
It all begins with an idea.
Today, I’m covering the three most common mistakes I see people make when starting R+ training with their horses. I’ve worked with horse owners all over the country and these patterns show up time and again—so let’s dive in and learn how to avoid them!
Mistake #1: Skipping Foundation Behaviors
The most frequent mistake I see is not solidifying the foundational behaviors before moving on to advanced training. These core skills are the roots of your training—without them, the entire structure can collapse later on. Foundation behaviors like calm default, targeting, and stationing are essential because they:
Teach critical skills like duration and movement.
Establish clear communication.
Prepare the horse for more complex tasks.
If you’re unsure where to start, I have a free list of five foundational behaviors available on my website—these are the ones I use with nearly all my clients.
Another aspect of this mistake is not knowing what behaviors to train next. It can feel overwhelming to figure out what steps to take or how to build a logical training plan. If you’re feeling stuck, try:
Following professional trainers on social media for inspiration.
Joining positive reinforcement Facebook groups.
Exploring memberships and resources designed for ongoing support.
Mistake #2: Not Prioritizing Emotional Balance
Training isn’t just about behaviors—it’s about emotions too. One of the biggest gaps I see in training is failing to balance emotional control. Ideally, we want a horse that is:
Engaged but not frantic: Avoid creating a "cookie monster" who becomes overly fixated on treats.
Calm but not shut down: Ensure your horse isn’t emotionally disengaged or avoiding training.
Willing but not coerced: Positive reinforcement should inspire the horse’s willingness without pressure or coercion.
Strive for emotional balance by varying activities with your horse. Mix in grooming, hand grazing, walks, and enrichment alongside your formal training. This variety prevents training from becoming overwhelming and helps your horse stay mentally healthy.
Mistake #3: Not Seeking Support or Building a Community
The final mistake is trying to go it alone. Positive reinforcement is a skill that requires continuous learning and growth, and having the right support system can make all the difference.
How to build your support network:
Take Lessons: Personalized feedback accelerates your progress and clarifies confusing concepts.
Join a Membership: Communities like Shawna Karrasch’s membership and my own offer video reviews, live group lessons, and supportive forums.
Engage on Social Media: Flood your feeds with inspiring trainers and positive reinforcement content.
Professional guidance, whether through lessons, memberships, or free content like podcasts and YouTube, provides clarity and helps you stay motivated when challenges arise.
Final Thoughts
These three mistakes—skipping foundations, neglecting emotional balance, and not seeking support—are incredibly common but also very fixable. By focusing on solid foundation behaviors, staying mindful of your horse’s emotions, and surrounding yourself with a supportive learning community, you’ll create a more positive, successful training journey for you and your horse.
If you’re looking for more help with positive reinforcement training, I offer both virtual and in-person lessons, along with my membership program where you can get personalized feedback and ongoing support.
Happy Training!